ALTERNATIVE METHODS FOR BUILDING INFORMATION SYSTEMS

There are a number of alternative methods for building information systems, each suited to different types of problems.

1.         SYSTEMS LIFE CYCLE

The oldest method for building systems is the systems life cycle, which requires that information systems be developed in formal stages. It partitions systems development process into formal stages that must be completed sequentially.

The stages have defined outputs; each requires formal approval before the next stage can commence. The system life cycle is useful for large projects that need formal specifications and tight management control over each stage of systems building.

RESEARCH DESIGN IS THE CORNERSTONE OF RESEARCH PROJECTS. DISCUSS

RESEARCH DESIGN IS THE CORNERSTONE OF RESEARCH PROJECTS. DISCUSS

DEFINATION

Research design is the strategy, the plan, and the structure of conducting a research  project.(“research-design.pdf,” Michael S. Carriger)

Research Design can also be variously defined as the systematic planning of research to permit valid conclusion.  (Reis & Judd, 2000, p. 17).  It involves, for example, the specifications of the population to be studied, the treatment to be administered, and the dependent variables to be measured- all guided by the theoretical conceptions underlying the research.

(Polit, Hungler, & Beck, 2001) define a research design as “the overall plan for collecting and analysing data including specifications for enhancing the internal and external validity of the study”.

(Burns & Grove, 2009) define a research design as “a blueprint for conducting a study with maximum control over factors that may interfere with the validity of the findings”.

(Parahoo, 2006) describes a research design as “a plan that describes how, when and where data are to be collected and analysed”. (Polit & Beck, 2012) define a research design as “the researcher’s overall for answering the research question or testing the research hypothesis”.

Research design can be thought of as the logic or master plan of a research that throws light on how the study is to be conducted. It shows how all of the major parts of the research study– the samples or groups, measures, treatments or programs, etc– work together in an attempt to address the research questions. Research design is similar to an architectural outline. The research design can be seen as actualisation of logic in a set of procedures that optimises the validity of data for a given research problem.

According to Mouton (1996, p. 175) the research design serves to "plan, structure and execute" the research to maximise the "validity of the findings". It gives directions from the underlying philosophical assumptions to research design, and data collection. Yin (2003) adds further that “colloquially a research design is an action plan for getting from here to there, where ‘here’ may be defined as the initial set of questions to be answered and ‘there’ is some set of (conclusions) answers” (p. 19).

Research design most fundamentally affects the internal validity of research, that is, the ability to draw conclusions about what actually causes any observable differences in a dependent measure

However , design also has implications for other forms of validity. Statistical conclusion validity is affected by such design related issues as the number of participants used and the way they were allocated to conditions. Construct validity, the ability to link research operationalisation to their intendened theoretical constructs, is affected by many aspects of the design, such as freedom from confounding. External validity or generalizability is affected by the way other design factors beside those of key theoretical interests are held constant or allowed to vary

Research design is inextricably linked to data analysis (Miller & Salkind, 2002).

2.      CATEGORIES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Research design can be divided into three fundamental categories

a.       An experimental design involves a manipulation of at least one independent variable, along with random assignment of participants to conditions. Levels of a manipulated factor are often termed as “treatments”.

b.      A quasi experimental design involves manipulation without randomization for example the assignment of two pre existing ropus to different treatments

c.       A non experimental or passive observational design includes neither manipulation not random assignment

Among the factors that will influence research design include resources, research skills, perceived problems, ethical standards, the research settings, and the data to collect and the results to be drawn from these data. These factors either belong to the environment within which the research and its design exist or are products of the research. (Maxwell, 2005, p. 6)

Research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted. The function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money (“Research_Methodology.pdf,” n.d.)

The preparation of research design, appropriate for a particular research problem, involves the consideration of the following :

1.      Objectives of the research study.

2.      Method of Data Collection to be adopted

3.      Source of information—Sample Design ie  The Sample, Sample Size, How should the sample be chosen, How many

4.      Tool for Data collection

5.      Data Analysis-- qualitative and quantitative

The point of designing a study in research before data collection is simple: to maximize the ability to draw valid and supported conclusions from findings in the study. (“Elements of research study design and data analysis.pdf,” n.d.)

 In other words, the goal is to maximize both the internal and external validity of a study. Internal validity is the soundness of conclusions drawn within the study as based on the actual findings. External validity is the validity of inferences drawn from the study to the world outside the study. One recommended set of steps for designing a scientific study is shown in Outline 1. Maximizing the ability to generalize study results should be considered in all steps of study design. Reviewing the literature prior to beginning a study is essential; this information can impact proposed project design, analysis, and interpretation of results.

Outline 1

Research question:	Formulate the research question; review literature before proceeding
Study subjects:	Conceptualize the target populations Plan the technique for obtaining the intended set of subjects from the populations Establish a plan to minimize loss of actual subjects
Measurements:	Identify the properties of interest Translate the properties of interest into intended variables of the study Plan the actual measurements
Statistical analysis:	Formulate a working hypothesis based on the research question, subjects, and variables Plan the statistical technique for testing the working hypothesis
Number of subjects:	Estimate the number of subjects or specimens

(Crotty, 1998) described four key features to consider in research design: the epistemology that informs the research, the philosophical stance underlying the methodology in question (e.g., post-positivism, constructivism, pragma­tism, advocacy/participatory, the methodology itself, and the techniques and procedures used in the research design to collect data. (“Research Design in Qualitative/Quantitative/Mixed Methods,” n.d.)

3.      CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Generally a good research design minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data collected and analyzed.  The design which gives the smallest experimental error is reported to be the best design in scientific investigation (Shadish, Cook, & Campbell, 2001).  Similarly, a design which yields maximum information and provides a opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem is considered to be the most appropriate efficient design .  Thus the question of a good design is related to the purpose or objective of the research problem and also with the nature of the problem to be studied.  A good research design should satisfy the following conditions.

Objectivity:  It refers to the findings related to the method of data collection and scoring of the responses.  In other words, the objectivity of the procedure may be judged by the degree of agreement between the final scores assigned to different individuals by more than one independent observer. 
 Reliability: Refers to consistency throughout a series of measurements.  So the researcher should frame the items in a questionnaire in such a way that it provides consistency or reliability.
Validity: Any measuring device or instrument is said to be valid when it measures what it is expected to measure. 
Generalizability:  It means how best the data collected from the samples can be utilized for drawing certain generalisations applicable to a large group from which sample is drawn. 

Theory-Grounded. Good research strategies reflect the theories which are being investigated. Where specific theoretical expectations can be hypothesized these are incorporated into the design. For example, where theory predicts a specific treatment effect on one measure but not on another, the inclusion of both in the design improves discriminant validity and demonstrates the predictive power of the theory.

Situational. Good research designs reflect the settings of the investigation. Similarly, intergroup rivalry, demoralization, and competition might be assessed through the use of additional comparison groups who are not in direct contact with the original group.

Feasible. Good designs can be implemented. The sequence and timing of events are carefully thought out. Potential problems in measurement, adherence to assignment, database construction and the like, are anticipated. Where needed, additional groups or measurements are included in the design to explicitly correct for such problems.

Redundant. Good research designs have some flexibility built into them. Often, this flexibility results from duplication of essential design features. For example, multiple replications of a treatment help to insure that failure to implement the treatment in one setting will not invalidate the entire study.

Efficient. Good designs strike a balance between redundancy and the tendency to overdesign. Where it is reasonable, other, less costly, strategies for ruling out potential threats to validity are utilized.

4.      TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

There are numerous types of research design that are appropriate for the different types of research projects. The choice of which design to apply depends on the nature of the problems posed by the research aims. Each type of research design has a range of research methods that are commonly used to collect and analyse the type of data that is generated by the investigations.

Here is a list of some of the more common research designs, with a short explanation of the characteristics of each.

Quantitative Research Designs
Descriptive	·         Describe phenomena as they exist. Descriptive studies generally take raw data and summarize it in a useable form. ·         Can also be qualitative in nature if the sample size is small and data are collected from questionnaires, interviews or observations.
Experimental	·         The art of planning and implementing an experiment in which the research has control over some of the conditions where the study takes place and control over some aspects of the independent variable(s) (presumed cause or variable used to predict another variable)
Quasi-experimental	·         A form of experimental research. One in which the researcher cannot control at least one of the three elements of an experimental design: ·         Environment ·         Intervention (program or practice) ·         Assignment to experimental and control groups
Qualitative Research Designs
Historical	·         Collection and evaluation of data related to past events that are used to describe causes, effects and trends that may explain present or future events. Data are often archival. ·         Data includes interviews
Ethnographic	·         The collection of extensive narrative data over an extended period of time in natural settings to gain insights about other types of research. ·         Data are collected through observations at particular points of time over a sustained period. ·         Data include observations, records and interpretations of what is seen.
Case Studies	·         An in-depth study of an individual group, institution, organization or program. ·         Data include interviews, field notes of observations, archival data and biographical data.

Given the possibility of qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods approaches, what factors affect a choice of one approach over another for the design of a proposal? Added to worldview, strategy, and methods would be the research problem, the personal experiences of the researcher, and the audience(s) for whom the report will be written

5.      HOW TO IDENTIFY VARIOUS RESEARCH DESIGN TOPOLOGIES

There are radically different types, or topologies, of research design in social science. Each of these topologies has different prerequisites and answers different types of questions. Different techniques of data analysis are used in different research topologies. Knowledge of these different topologies, their strengths and their limitations, is crucial to designing and executing good research

a.       Determine whether you are primarily collecting statistical data. This is quantitative research, where the data are analyzed using statistical techniques.

b.      Determine whether you are primarily collecting narrative or textual information. This is qualitative research, where the data are analyzed using techniques of textual or thematic analysis.

c.       Determine whether you are collecting both statistical and narrative/textual information. This is mixed-methods research, which combines aspects of both quantitative and qualitative research.

d.      Determine whether you are administering an experimental treatment to one or more groups. If you are administering an experimental treatment, you are conducting experimental research.

e.       Determine whether you have a quasi-experimental study. Studies like this are examples of quasi-experimental or correlational research.

f.       Determine whether you are conducting psychometric research. This involves research primarily intended to develop an assessment tool meant to assess, for example, intelligence, mental illness or opinions about a specific topic.

g.      Determine whether you are conducting descriptive research. This involves collecting behavioral observations or survey data, without dividing participants up into groups, without any experimental manipulation, and without the objective of developing a new psychometric instrument.

h.      Note whether or not you assign participants to groups, where the groups differ in terms of the experimental treatment they receive, or whether they receive a placebo or sham treatment, conventional treatment, or even any treatment at all. An experiment with one or more groups who receive sham treatment, conventional treatment or no treatment is said to be a controlled study, because these are different types of control groups.

i.        Note whether you assign participants to groups randomly. Experiments that use random assignment are stronger designs.

j.        Label your experimental design accurately. If you lack either control groups or random assignment to groups, you have an experiment, but one with a weak design. It may be best to label such a design a preliminary study.

6.      HOW TO EVALUATE A RESEARCH DESIGN

a.       Determine the nature of the research you need to evaluate. Research can be broadly divided into two categories: qualitative and quantitative.

b.      Review all sources cited in the research proposal. Ask yourself whether they are reputable and relevant to the topic at hand.

c.       Check the research design for conformity to standards of scientific research.

d.      Identify whether the design is descriptive, correlational, semi-experimental or experimental.

e.       Look for any ethical problems that may arise in the design.

f.       Review existing literature in order to determine whether the research has been done before. Scientific research should be original and contribute to the advancement of knowledge on a subject.

 

REFERENCES

Burns, N., & Grove, S. K. (2009). The practice of nursing research : appraisal, synthesis, and generation of evidence. St. Louis, Mo: Saunders Elsevier.

Crotty, M. (1998). The Foundations of Social Research: Meaning and Perspective in the Research Process. SAGE.

Elements of research study design and data analysis.pdf. (n.d.).

Maxwell, J. A. (2005). Qualitative Research Design: An Interactive Approach. SAGE.

Miller, D. C., & Salkind, N. J. (2002). Handbook of Research Design and Social Measurement. SAGE.

Parahoo, K. (2006). Nursing research : principles, process, and issues. Basingstoke, Hampshire, [England]; New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2012). Nursing research : generating and assessing evidence for nursing practice. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Polit, D. F., Hungler, B. P., & Beck, C. T. (2001). Essentials of nursing research : methods, appraisal and utilization. Philadelphia: Lippincott.

Reis, H. T., & Judd, C. M. (2000). Handbook of Research Methods in Social and Personality Psychology. Cambridge University Press.

Research Design in Qualitative/Quantitative/Mixed Methods. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/41165_10.pdf

Research_Methodology.pdf. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.ihmctan.edu/PDF/notes/Research_Methodology.pdf

research-design.pdf. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.deakin.edu.au/buslaw/infosys/research/students/docs/research-design.pdf

Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (2001). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.